Motivation: What Does the Research Say?

In general terms, student motivation "refers to a student's willingness, need, desire and compulsion to participate in, and be successful in, the learning process" (Bomia et al., 1997, p. 1). Skinner and Belmont (1991) develop the definition further, noting that students who are motivated to engage in school "select tasks at the border of their competencies, initiate action when given the opportunity, and exert intense effort and concentration in the implementation of learning tasks; they show generally positive emotions during ongoing action, including enthusiasm, optimism, curiosity, and interest" (p. 3). Less motivated or disengaged students, on the other hand, "are passive, do not try hard, and give up easily in the face of challenges" (Skinner & Belmont, 1991, p. 4).

Student motivation is often divided into two categories:

• Extrinsic motivation: A student can be described as extrinsically motivated when he or she engages in learning "purely for the sake of attaining a reward or for avoiding some punishment" (Dev, 1997). School practices that seek to motivate students extrinsically include publicly recognizing students for academic achievements; giving out stickers, candy, and other rewards; and taking away privileges, such as recess, on the basis of students' academic performance (Brooks et al., 1998).
• Intrinsic motivation: A student can be described as intrinsically motivated when he or she is motivated from within: Intrinsically motivated students actively engage themselves in learning out of curiosity, interest, or enjoyment, or in order to achieve their own intellectual and personal goals. According to Dev, 1997, "A student who is intrinsically motivated . . . will not need any type of reward or incentive to initiate or complete a task. This type of student is more likely to complete the chosen task and be excited by the challenging nature of an activity" (p. 13).

While any kind of motivation seems preferable to none, there is compelling evidence that students who are more intrinsically than extrinsically motivated fare better (Brooks et al., 1998; Lumsden, 1994). In fact, some research demonstrates that using extrinsic motivators to engage students in learning can both lower achievement and negatively affect student motivation (Dev, 1997; Lumsden, 1994). Students who are motivated to complete a task only to avoid consequences or to earn a certain grade rarely exert more than the minimum effort necessary to meet their goal. And, when students are focused on comparing themselves with their classmates, rather than on mastering skills at their own rate, they are more easily discouraged and their intrinsic motivation to learn may actually decrease. Brooks et al. (1998) observe that while external rewards sustain productivity, they "decrease interest in the task, thereby diminishing the likelihood that the task will be continued in the future" (p. 26).

Students who are intrinsically motivated, on the other hand, come out ahead in a number of areas.

Intrinsically motivated students:

• Earn higher grades and achievement test scores, on average, than extrinsically-motivated students (Dev, 1997; Skinner & Belmont, 1991)
• Are better personally adjusted to school (Skinner & Belmont, 1991)
• Employ "strategies that demand more effort and that enable them to process information more deeply" (Lumsden, 1994, p. 2)
• Are more likely to feel confident about their ability to learn new material (Dev, 1997)
• Use "more logical information-gathering and decision-making strategies" than do extrinsically-motivated students (Lumsden, 1994, p. 2)
• Are more likely to engage in "tasks that are moderately challenging, whereas extrinsically oriented students gravitate toward tasks that are low in degree of difficulty" (Lumsden, 1994, p. 2)
• Are more likely to persist with and complete assigned tasks (Dev, 1997)
• Retain information and concepts longer, and are less likely to need remedial courses and review (Dev, 1997)
• Are more likely to be lifelong learners, continuing to educate themselves outside the formal school setting long after external motivators such as grades and diplomas are removed (Kohn, 1993)

It should be noted here that some researchers object to describing student motivation as either intrinsic or extrinsic. Sternberg and Lubart (as cited in Strong, Silver, & Robinson, 1995) for example, argue that this division is too simple to reflect the many complex and interrelated factors that influence students' motivation to succeed in school. They point out that most successful people are motivated by both internal and external factors, and suggest that educators build on both types when working to engage students more fully in school.