CHILD DEVELOPMENT

What Research Says About Technology and Child Development

Young children have needs that are real and different from those of older children and adolescents. Children from birth to age eight are learning rapidly, using all of their senses and their entire bodies to take in sensations and experience the world around them. During this period of their lives they learn through their play and exploration across five essential developmental dimensions (Kagan, Moore, & Bredekamp, 1995). These dimensions include:

Social and Emotional Development. The ability to form and sustain relationships gives meaning to learning experiences. Responsive interactions provide a sense of well-being that enables children to form attachments with others and participate positively in educational activities.

Language Development. Language empowers children to participate in both the cognitive and affective parts of the educational program. Experience with written and oral language provides children with the tools to interact with others, and to represent their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.

Physical Well-Being and Motor Development. A child's health is connected to preparedness for and performance in learning activities. Healthy children are able to focus on and actively engage in experiences crucial to the learning process.

Cognition and General Knowledge. Children need opportunities to interact with the people and objects in their environment, and to learn from their surroundings. Experiences and interactions with peers and adults allow children to construct knowledge of patterns, understand relationships between objects or events, and learn ways to solve problems.

Approaches Toward Learning. Children can be successful learners in many different ways. By understanding the predispositions and learning styles that influence a child's response to learning opportunities, adults can encourage and increase engagement.

What Research Says About Technology and Child Development

There is a substantial body of research on technology use with young children. A large portion of this research focuses on the use of computers to enhance social, language, and cognitive skills (Seng, 1998). Studies highlight the opportunities for language use and social interaction that technology offers, along with increased motivation. Computers also make possible experiences and representations that cannot take place in the real world, providing new experiences and improved understanding.

Social and Emotional Development

Technology cannot and should not replace human interaction or relationships, or take the place of activities such as reading stories together or sharing conversations with children. Properly used, however, computers and software can serve as catalysts for social interaction and conversations related to children's work (Clements & Nastasi, 1993). A classroom set up to encourage interaction and the appropriate use of the technology will increase, not impair, language and literacy development. Strategies to build socialization into computer use include placing two seats in front of the computer to encourage children to work together, placing computers close to each other to facilitate sharing ideas, and locating computers in a central spot to invite other children to participate in the activity (Clements, 1999). When used appropriately:

• Computers are intrinsically motivating for young children, and contribute to cognitive and social development (National Association for the Education of Young Children [NAEYC], 1996).
  
• Computers can enhance children's self-concept and improve their attitudes about learning (Sivin-Kachala & Bialo, 1994).
  
• Children demonstrate increased levels of spoken communication and cooperation during computer use (Clements, 1994; Haugland & Wright, 1997).
  
• hildren share leadership roles on the computer, and initiate interactions more frequently (Clements, 1994; Haugland & Wright, 1997).

Language Development

The variety of rich experiences that promote early literacy, including conversations with caring adults, storytelling, drawing and painting, and pretend play, is critical in the development of both oral and written language (Novick, 1998). Everyday, playful experiences in print-rich environments expose children to the processes of reading and writing for real purposes (International Reading Association [IRA] and NAEYC, 1998). Technology has a place in this environment; language and literacy development are major strengths of technology use with young children through the opportunities and motivation it provides. While critics express concerns that computer use will inhibit language development and lead to social isolation (Cordes & Miller, 2000; Healy, 1998), rather than isolating children, research shows that:

• Computer play encourages longer, more complex speech and the development of fluency (Davidson & Wright, 1994).
  
• Children tend to narrate what they are doing as they draw pictures or move objects and characters around on the screen (Bredekamp & Rosegrant, 1994).
  
• Young children interacting at computers engage in high levels of spoken communication and cooperation, such as turn-taking and peer collaboration. "Compared to more traditional activities, such as puzzle assembly or block building, the computer elicits more social interaction and different types of interaction" (Clements, Nastasi, & Swaminathan, 1993, p. 60).

Physical Well-Being and Motor Development

Fine and gross motor skills develop at varying rates, and learning to write can be tedious and difficult as children struggle to form letters. A word processor allows them to compose and revise text without being distracted by the fine motor aspects of letter formation (Davis & Shade, 1994).

Following ergonomic standards similar to those for adults can help prevent muscular-skeletal injuries and vision problems. Computer use is and should be relatively brief at this age, and limiting screen time and encouraging frequent breaks will decrease the risks.

Lack of exercise and obesity are serious problems that need to be addressed during both in-school and out-of-school hours. On a typical day children two to seven years old spend an average of 11 minutes using a computer, and more than three hours watching television and videos (Roberts, Foehr, Rideout, & Brodie, 1999). Screen time (including TV, computer, and video games) should be limited to a maximum of one to two hours per day for young children (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2000; Healy, 1999). Vigorous physical activities and play should be encouraged.

As with television monitors, electromagnetic emissions from computers are minimal. Exposure can be lessened even more by having children sit two to two and one half feet from the monitor and allowing distance between computers.

Cognition and General Knowledge

Technology offers unique intellectual experiences and opportunities for young children. Computers allow representation and actions not possible in the physical world. For example, children can manipulate variables such as gravity or speed, and discover the resulting effects (Clements, 1999; Seng, 1998).

Research points to the positive effects of technology use on cognitive and social learning and development (Clements, 1994; Haugland & Shade, 1994). In similar studies with different ages of children, using computers along with supporting activities (e.g., manipulatives, objects that children use to help them understand concepts) provided even greater benefits than either one alone.

Compared to children in a similar classroom without computer experience, three- and four-year-olds who used computers with supporting activities had significantly greater gains in verbal and nonverbal skills, problem solving, abstraction, and conceptual skills (Haugland, 1992). Similarly, third-grade children who used both manipulatives and computer programs showed more sophistication in classification and logical thinking than children who used only manipulatives (Clements & Nastasi, 1993).

Technology use that is connected to what children already know and can build upon leads to greater motivation and self-direction. Loss of creativity can be a problem if children use drill-and-practice software. Open-ended software — software that provides opportunities to discover, make choices, and find out the impact of decisions — encourages exploration, imagination, and problem solving.

Approaches Toward Learning

Technology offers additional ways to learn, and to demonstrate learning. For some children who have unique learning styles, computers can reveal hidden strengths. At the computer, children can approach learning from a variety of perspectives and follow various paths to a goal (Clements, 1999). Poor concentration and attention problems can be addressed by limiting screen time, helping children focus on the task, and choosing software that does not employ excessively stimulating noises or constantly moving graphics.

Concerns that technology speeds up the pace of learning and cuts down on childhood can be lessened if unprogrammed playtime is included as an essential part of the child's daily routine, including any technology use. Play is important for intellectual development and, as such, should be included as a vital part of early childhood education. Used appropriately, computers can be a positive element of children's play and learning as they explore and experiment.