Appendix A
Several decades worth of research have focused on the relationship between principal practice and student learning, and on connections between school improvement and leadership style. In an effort to synthesize this data and provide a more comprehensive look at the areas in which principals directly and indirectly affect student achievement, Waters, Marzano, and McNulty (2003) conducted a meta-analysis of 70 of the most rigorous of these studies. Their report, Balanced Leadership: What 30 Years of Research Tells Us About the Effect of Leadership on Student Achievement, identifies 21 areas of responsibility through which principal behavior significantly affects learning. These 21 areas are listed and defined in rank order below.
- 1. Culture:
- The extent to which the principal fosters shared beliefs and a sense of community and cooperation.
- 2. Order:
- The extent to which the principal establishes a set of standard operating procedures and routines.
- 3. Discipline:
- The extent to which the principal protects teachers from issues and influences that would detract from their teaching time or focus.
- 4. Resources:
- The extent to which the principal provides teachers with the material and professional development necessary for the successful execution of their jobs.
- 5. Curriculum, instruction, and assessment:
- The extent to which the principal is directly involved in the design and implementation of curriculum, instruction, and assessment practices.
- 6. Focus:
- The extent to which the principal establishes clear goals and keeps those goals in the forefront of the school's attention.
- 7. Knowledge of curriculum, instruction, and assessment:
- The extent to which the principal is knowledgeable about current curriculum, instruction, and assessment practices.
- 8. Visibility:
- The extent to which the principal has quality contact and interactions with teachers and students.
- 9. Contingent rewards:
- The extent to which the principal recognizes and rewards individual accomplishments.
- 10. Communication:
- The extent to which the principal establishes strong lines of communication with teachers and among students.
- 11. Outreach:
- The extent to which the principal is an advocate and spokesperson for the school to all stakeholders.
- 12. Input:
- The extent to which the principal involves teachers in the design and implementation of important decisions and policies.
- 13. Affirmation:
- The extent to which the principal recognizes and celebrates school accomplishments and acknowledges failures.
- 14. Relationship:
- The extent to which the principal demonstrates an awareness of the personal aspects of teachers and staff.
- 15. Change agent:
- The extent to which the principal is willing to and actively challenges status quo.
- 16. Optimizer:
- The extent to which the principal inspires and leads new and challenging innovations.
- 17. Ideals/Beliefs:
- The extent to which the principal communicates and operates from strong ideals and beliefs about schooling.
- 18. Monitors/Evaluates:
- The extent to which the principal monitors the effectiveness of school practices and their impact on student learning.
- 19. Flexibility:
- The extent to which the principal adapts his or her leadership behavior to the needs of the current situation and is comfortable with dissent.
- 20. Situational awareness:
- The extent to which the principal is aware of the details and undercurrents in the running of the school and uses this information to address current and potential problems.
- 21. Intellectual stimulation:
- The extent to which the principal ensures that faculty and staff are aware of the most current theories and practices and makes the discussion of these a regular aspect of the school's culture.
Adapted with author permission from Waters, T., Marzano, R., & McNulty, B. (2003). Balanced leadership: What 30 years of research tells us about the effect of leadership on student achievement [Working paper]. Denver, CO: Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning, pp. 9-10.
